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A Study of Cross-Cultural Communication and Business: Hmong vs. American
(Keys to Successfully Conducting Business with the Hmong)
Honors Senior Thesis
Tara Lynne Campbell
Dominican University of California
August 8, 2003
8,855 words
This paper is intended to describe a lesser-known culture, the Hmong, for the purpose of assisting businesspeople, particularly Americans, in conducting business with the Hmong. Research was done via interviews and extensive written sources. This paper describes the Hmong culture in terms of history, language, cultural and business etiquette, roles of men and women, and religious traditions.
Though Laos is the traditional homeland of the Hmong, they can be found around the world in such places as China, Thailand, the USA, Australia, France, Canada, Argentina, Vietnam, and New Zealand. Due to the differences in culture, this paper focuses on non-Chinese Hmong. These Hmong speak dialects of two languages: Hmong Njua and Hmong Daw.
Hmong society is hierarchical: it is arranged into clans and sub-clans. Clan elders are highly respected and should always be addressed first. The Hmong are also a patriarchal society, so men are respected more than women. As with many Asian societies, the Hmong place a great emphasis on respect and building relationships. This results in a much slower pace of business than in the western world, particularly America.
Traditional Hmong religion is animist. It places great value on ancestor worship and a belief that spirits, both good and bad, affect all parts of daily life – including business.
Overall, Hmong traditional society is significantly different
than American society. It is very wise
for one to learn about the culture prior to beginning a business
relationship. One should also take
great care to respect Hmong culture in doing business, and adapt as much as
possible to their traditions.
When one considers the factors that will affect the ability of two culturally different businesspeople to do business, many influences are immediately apparent. If they are in different countries, these factors may include: the current economic situations of both countries, foreign policies, language barriers, the current socio-political environments, public opinions, restrictions and politics surrounding the particular product, transportation costs and barriers, global conflicts, and cultural differences. Even when both people are in the same country, there may be factors such as language barriers, the current socio-political environments, public opinions, and cultural differences that will affect their ability to do business. A thorough analysis of all of these factors is beyond the scope of this paper. This thesis focuses on the cultural factors that will effect business communication with the non-Chinese Hmong, both in and out of the U.S, from the perspective of ‘if you knew nothing about the Hmong.’[1]
Webster’s New World Dictionary defines culture as “the ideas, customs, skills, arts, etc. of a people or group, that are transferred, communicated, or passed along, as in or to succeeding generations”(337). Schmitz defines culture as “the pattern of value orientations of individuals that define their given situations and that tend to be expected, reinforced and rewarded within a particular social group” (4). Widely stated, culture is the set of beliefs, traditions, behaviors, language and values that characterize a given set of people. In order to effectively conduct business across differing cultures, one should have an understanding of four basic facets of culture as they will affect business, as well as a basic historical knowledge of the culture in question and how this history affects the culture. These four basic facets of culture that will be discussed here are: language barriers, cultural etiquette, business etiquette, and religious traditions.
One may ask, “how is a discussion
of culture relevant in business today?”
In recent years, we have seen a swift globalization of the business
world. Not only is trade with other
countries growing, but corporations and businesses are taking advantage of
culturally diverse workforces to reach more customers in more locations than
ever before. By hiring a culturally diverse
workforce, corporations take advantage of such obvious benefits as
multi-lingual employees and other important benefits such as the different
experiences of one’s employees. By
having a cultural diverse workforce, one will be able to utilize employees who
can relate to customers from similar cultural backgrounds and points of
view. One also has the advantage in
diversity of thought when it comes to decision-making. However, the increased diversification of
the workforce poses challenges as well.
These challenges can include multiple (sometimes irreconcilable) points
of view, language barriers, and the need for more skilled, culturally competent
managers and employees. This paper is
intended to assist in meeting these cultural challenges by discussing a
lesser-known cultural group: the Hmong.
An important basis for the characterization of the Hmong culture described in this paper is a series of informal interviews that I conducted over a period of three years.[2]
·
Who:
Interviewees were selected informally from a local population of Hmong
in the Chico, CA area and from people who have worked closely with the Hmong,
also in the Chico, CA area. All
interviewees were previous acquaintances or relatives of acquaintances. They were selected because they had worked
in the Hmong community, generally as liaisons between the Hmong and the rest of
the non-Hmong community. The
interviewees had guaranteed level of knowledge concerning the challenges and
troubles implicit in working with the Hmong.
·
How many: Six interviews were conducted in
total. Three of the interviewees agreed
to interviews at my request. The
remaining three agreed to an interview only after their assistance was
requested by one of the original interviewees, a member of their clan. Six additional interviews were requested and
refused.
·
Location: In informal restaurants in
Chico, CA and via telephone.
· Length:
Interviews ranged from a length of 10 minutes to 2 hours. Interviews lasted 30 minutes on average.
· Content:
Interviews were conducted in a very free form. Sample questions were used to begin and the conversation was
allowed to wander freely.
o
Sample questions:
§ What
do you think is the most important thing to remember when working with Hmong?
§ How
important is it to adapt to Hmong culture?
§ What
would you do to begin a business relationship?
§ How
important is body language communication with the Hmong?
§ Are there any important legal considerations?
§ Can you think of any special situations that should be mentioned?
The Hmong are
among the newest immigrants to America and Australia. They began arriving shortly after the Vietnam War in order to
avoid persecution in Laos, their traditional home. Between 1975 and 1991 approximately 500,000 Hmong fled Laos,
becoming “international political refugees” (Pobzeb). Currently, approximately
300,000 Hmong live in the US (Hmongnet) and 100,000 live in Thailand
(Kingdom). Laos, the traditional home
of the Hmong, supports approximately 400,000 Hmong people today (Pobzeb). Hmong populations can also be found in
France, Canada, Argentina, New Zealand, French Guyana, Vietnam, and elsewhere
(Saykao).
The Hmong originally lived in central Siberia, but migrated to northern China “as early as 2500 B.C.” (McCall). Many Hmong escaped to Lao in the mid-nineteenth century, and settled in the Plain of Jars in order to escape persecution in China (McCall); the Hmong who remained in China are known as Miao (Household). Because of religious and agricultural differences, Hmong people did not get along with many of the sixty different ethnic groups in Laos. This led many Hmong in Laos to ally themselves with the Americans during the Vietnam War in order to gain power. Throughout the Vietnam War, the Hmong served as a buffer against Communism in Laos. When the Americans left Vietnam in 1975, many Hmong feared retribution from the communist government of the new Lao People’s Democratic Republic. More than 200,000 Hmong attempted to escape Laos; over half died trying to escape. The Hmong who did escape settled all over the world, primarily in Thailand, the US (in California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Texas), and Australia (Mc Call). The Hmong are a minority group in every country where they are found.
There are two main groups of non-Chinese Hmong: the White Hmong and the Green/Blue Hmong (Lee, Relationship). White Hmong tend to speak dialects of Hmong Daw and Green/Blue Hmong tend to speak dialects of Hmong Njua (Lao). The main White Hmong clans are the Lee, Yang, Vang, Thao, Mua, Haw, Xiong, Lau and Vu; while the main Green/Blue Hmong clans are Tang, Chang, Kew, Kong, Klu, Zang Tchai, Chao and Ka. Most American Hmong are White Hmong and most Australian Hmong are Green/Blue Hmong (Chan). Both clan groups are represented in Thailand and Laos.
China: One part of the world with a large Hmong population is China. As mentioned above, the Hmong of China are known as Miao or Meo.[3] This paper focuses on non-Chinese Hmong for several reasons. First, the Miao represent only 0.03% of the Chinese population (4.3% of the minority population in China) (People’s), and live almost entirely in hard to reach agricultural areas, making it extremely unlikely that one would encounter them in the normal course of business. Second, due to lack of resources and the extreme complexity of the Miao political situation, little information about the Miao is available to the researcher. Lastly, there are broad cultural differences between the Miao and the non-Chinese Hmong that make the study of both groups better suited to a separate paper with a different focus.
Laos: As the accepted traditional home for the Hmong, Laos has the highest population of Hmong. These Hmong live generally in the Plain of Jars. Throughout their history, the Hmong of Laos have often been at odds with the rest of the Laotian population. During the Vietnam War, Hmong soldiers in Laos formed the “backbone of the RLG defense in northern Laos” (Lee, Refugees) that worked with the Americans and French to protect the Ho Chi Minh trail. The Hmong suffered the most casualties among the Laotians during this war. Following the war thousands of Hmong fled Laos to escape retribution from the new Communist government of Laos. They made up a disproportionately large portion of the refugee population (32%). Most of the approximately 400,000 Hmong remaining in Laos (Laos) went into hiding in the mountains; these families continue to live in remote and difficult to access mountain areas today (Lee, Refugees). Currently, Hmong in Laos are still targets of ‘ethnic cleansings’ and other forms of oppression and murder. “Witnesses in Laos reported that the communist Lao government and the communist Vietnamese government have killed more than 300,000 people in Laos in the past 26 years. The ‘killing fields’ and genocide in Laos are still going on in the countryside today” (Pobzeb). In recent years, there has been a strong push from Thailand to ‘repatriate’ Hmong refugees in Thailand back into Laos. This has proven intensely difficult and dangerous for the repatriated Hmong. Many are arrested for ‘war crimes’ or ‘dissention’ soon after they enter Laos and many are killed by PL (Laotian) soldiers as they attempt to escape back into Thailand (Lee, Refugees).
The Hmong in Laos are a primarily agricultural group. Very few Laotian Hmong are found in non-agricultural businesses. Due to the aforementioned difficulties with repatriation, of those Hmong willing to risk public appearances, many are actively involved in Human Service type jobs and political lobbying. Therefore, what Hmong one encounters in the course of business in Laos are likely to be in one of these industries/areas.
Conducting business within Laos and with Laos can be very difficult. In addition to political obstacles, there are lingual, geographic, and technological complications to consider. In addition to speaking the local Hmong language (discussed later in this paper) one must also either speak Lao or use an interpreter in order to get through the red tape and move around this country. The lingual obstacles can be substantial in Laos; Hmong Njua and Hmong Daw just two of 82 languages spoken in Laos (Laos). Hmong speakers are only 4% of the population. In addition, much of business will likely have to be conducted orally as the population of Laos is 43% to 45% literate, with the literacy rate estimated to be slightly lower among the Hmong (Lao). Much of Laos is jungle and does not have paved roads. Villages can be difficult to get to, particularly during the rainy season. Despite recent efforts to improve the Laotian infrastructure, most of Laos remains very low technology. Most Laotian Hmong are not technologically proficient. For example, many villages do not have telephones. In order to use a phone, the caller will have to walk to the nearest village with a phone, and will likely have to have someone else dial the phone for them (Respondent 2).
Thailand: The
approximately 100,000 Hmong of Thailand (Kingdom) live almost entirely in
refugee camps near the Laotian border.
Many Hmong continue to flee to Thailand each year to escape oppression
and death in Laos (Lee, Refugees).
Within Thailand, many Hmong are in difficult positions. Proclamation 337 makes it very difficult for
any Hmong to obtain Thai citizenship and legally own land (Lee, Minority). Most Hmong in Thailand are forced to survive
by selling textiles, particularly the unique Hmong “Storycloths,” or working
for very low wages as household help for rich Thai. The few Hmong who have obtained citizenship and land often live
in the more remote mountainous regions raising rice. Often these rice farmers cannot make ends meet, particularly due
to the cost of essential medicines in the area, and turn to opium farming to survive
(Lee, Minority).
As with Laos, there are lingual, geographic, and
technological considerations when conducting business in Thailand. Once again, in addition to speaking the
appropriate form of Hmong, one will need to either speak Thai or use an interpreter. The lingual obstacles are also substantial
in Thailand; Hmong Njua and Hmong Daw are just two of 75 languages spoken in
Thailand (Kingdom). Hmong speakers are
only 0.2% of the population. Thailand’s
literacy rate is estimated at 89% (Kingdom), so this will be less likely to
affect business. Much of Thailand is
covered by jungle and many provinces have few paved roads, making Thailand
difficult to traverse, particularly during the rainy season. Thailand has some major cities, such as
Bangkok, where contact is significantly easier; the growing tourism industry
has made parts of Thailand much easier to get around. However, as mentioned above, most Hmong do not live in these
areas. Technology in Thailand is more
prevalent than in Laos, especially in the major cities and tourist areas, but
may still not be available to the Hmong of Thailand, particularly if the live
in a refugee camp (Respondent 2).
US and Australia: The Hmong in the US and Australia are generally in a much better position than Hmong in the rest of the world. Although many American and Australian Hmong are still lower income earners, generally working in agriculture, they are not subject to the various political pressures of the Hmong living in Asia. Technology, geography, and language are also less likely to be issues with these Hmong, and are discussed further below.
The Hmong in the US live primarily in California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Texas, while the Hmong in Australia live primarily in Tasmania. Although there are only approximately 2,000 Hmong in Australia (Hmong-Australian), they, like American Hmong, are among the wealthiest Hmong in the world and therefore most likely to be encountered in the normal course of business. Of the Hmong in America, approximately 70,000 live in California, 80,000 live in Wisconsin, 80,000 live in Minnesota, and the remainder live in other locations around the country. The largest single population of Hmong within the US is in Milwaukee, where approximately 15,000 Hmong reside (Pobzeb).
Other countries: Hmong populations can also be found in France, Canada, Argentina, New Zealand, French Guyana, Vietnam, and elsewhere (Saykao). Those populations in the western world (France, Canada, New Zealand, etc.) will share many similarities with the US and Australian populations. The majority of Vietnamese Hmong continue to live in hard to reach locations. This paper does not go into detail on these countries; should one be planning on doing business with Hmong in these locations, then a better understanding of the countries would be called for.
One important facet of cross-cultural communication is language. When two parties speak different languages there can be many difficulties in understanding one another. If neither party speaks the other language proficiently, they will be forced to use an interpreter. Although this may sound ideal, interpreters are not always sufficient for business communication. Very often Americans rely on tone and the particular choice of one’s words to divine the deeper meaning behind what the speaker is saying. These nuances often do not translate when a conversation is filtered through a third party. Few interpreters are capable of interpreting intentions and tone, merely words and phrases. For instance, ‘bother’ and ‘infuriate’ are synonyms that carry different connotations. If one were to say that another person “bothered them,” this would generally not offend a person so much as saying that the person “infuriated them.” ‘Bother’ implies a lesser and possibly unintentional act, whereas ‘infuriate’ implies a malicious and probably intentional act. However, because these words are synonyms, they may be used interchangeably by the interpreter, which could result in unkind feelings between the speaking parties. A rather humorous, but very real, example of this occurred when President Carter used an interpreter during a trip to Poland. The interpreter was translating President Carter’s phrase, “I want to get to know you.” and incorrectly chose the Polish word for ‘know’ meaning ‘carnal knowledge!’ Needless to say, this caused a bit of trouble!
Additionally, the use of slang and colloquialisms must be eliminated, as an effective translation frequently cannot be made. Although this is generally a sound business practice, it is especially important when working through an interpreter. Most interpreters will translate a colloquialism word-for-word, rather than the meaning of the phrase, leaving the receiver completely confused.
When working through an interpreter in conducting
business with the Hmong, there can be additional difficulties. The selection of one’s interpreter can be a
challenge within itself. The best
possible interpreter would be a member of the Hmong’s family or clan. If this is not possible then one should
endeavor to find an interpreter of the same clan group, in order to prevent
offense. This is especially important
because the different clan groups speak different forms of Hmong, and using the
wrong dialect or language set can cause unwonted offense (Respondent 4). Respondent 4 described a situation in which
she had been sent to a non-English speaking client’s home. Upon arriving at the home, she introduced
herself to the head of the house in Hmong.
The man furiously told her that they were not part of that clan (whose
dialect she spoke) and refused to speak with her any further. A Hmong speaker from the client’s clan had
to be sent to the client in order to work with him. This example just emphasizes the importance of careful choice in
one’s interpreter.
A final aspect of language that can be difficult to
decipher, when using an interpreter, is body language. Americans and Hmong both tend to rely on
body language to understand a person’s full meaning. For example, one difference in interpretation of body language is
the custom of the Hmong NOT to look another person in the eye, out of respect,
while Americans consider this rude (Respondent 5). An unintentional end to a business relationship could certainly
occur very quickly if a new member of a team were to be brought in and not
briefed on this.
Even when one party speaks the language of the other party, language problems can arise. The first difficulty is in speaking the proper language and dialect. There are two different Hmong language groups, which are categorized as Hmong-Mien languages. The first language, Hmong Daw (White Meo, White Miao, Meo Kao, White Lum, Bai Mia), has two dialects, Hmong Gu Mba (or Striped Hmong) and Mong Leng (Lao) and is spoken primarily by White Hmong. The second is language Hmong Njua (Blue Meo, Blue Miao, Tak Meo, Hmong Njwa, Hmong Leng, Miao, Meo) (Lao) and is spoken primarily by Blue/Green Hmong. Each Hmong clan speaks a particular one of these languages and dialects, and to speak to a Hmong person in the wrong dialect would be considered very rude, because it would appear that the speaker does not have the proper respect for that particular clan. They might refuse to conduct any business at all (Respondent 2). If one speaks the wrong dialect, than one should preface their speech with an apology for not speaking the correct dialect (Respondent 4). This shows that one does respect the Hmong clan and means no offense, but rather it is the only dialect the speaker knows.
Provided that one speaks the proper language and dialect, or the Hmong representative speaks English, there are still further considerations for speaking to a Hmong. The first consideration is speed. Americans tend to speak quickly and expect a quick response. In the Hmong culture, it is important to speak slowly and with much thought to show that you respect the other party. They will also take much longer to answer a question because they want to be sure that they are answering the question in full (Respondent 2). In order to effectively conduct business with Hmong people, Americans must concentrate on speaking slowly and allowing the Hmong enough time to answer. Americans would also find it beneficial to slow their response times, in order to show respect for the Hmong. This is especially important when, as is common, English is a second language for the Hmong.
The final language consideration is formality. Respondent 2 repeatedly emphasized the importance of showing respect in the Hmong culture. They speak very formally until a good relationship has been established and permission has been given to address each other informally (Respondent 2). Americans, on the other hand, tend to speak informally to each other, almost from their first introduction. As this would be considered highly disrespectful among Hmong, Americans need to speak very formally to Hmong until they are given direct permission (“please call me Mai”) to do otherwise.
Another facet of effective cross-cultural communication is cultural etiquette. These are the “manners” of each particular culture. Hmong cultural etiquette is very different from American in many ways, but it also has a few similarities. The structure of etiquette begins upon first meeting the person. It is best to first greet a Hmong at a neutral location, such as a restaurant, rather than on your property or theirs. This is not a necessity, but it is a polite formality because it allows the person to meet you and begin to establish a relationship and trust before you take the next step of entering their property. This meeting would be more to discuss the possibility of doing business, rather than actually conducting business. To discuss business at this point would be considered disrespectful of the Hmong, as well as highly impatient (Respondent 2). This formal greeting and relationship-building structure is difficult for many Americans to comprehend because we tend to have “get down to business and skip the chit-chat” attitudes. To successfully do business with Hmongs, Americans will need to curb this attitude and understand that it takes longer to begin a business relationship, or any other relationship, in the Hmong culture.
Another important facet of Hmong culture is the hierarchy of communication. Upon meeting any group of Hmong, one should always address the greeting to the eldest male, even if he does not speak one’s language. This is a sign of respect. In fact, one should not address any other person in the room, until one has permission from the eldest male to do so (Respondent 2). If he does not give permission, one should either ask him what they wish to know, or one should leave. This presents another communication challenge for Americans. Many Americans prefer to go directly to the person whom they need to work with. Instead, one needs to understand the hierarchal structure of Hmong society and respect it.
A next bit of Hmong cultural etiquette is the use of eye contact. Here Americans and Hmong have a large cultural gap. In American culture, we are taught to use eye contact when speaking or listening to a person. When one wants to make a point or be sure that one is understood, one looks the other person in the eye. In fact, when a person refuses to look an American in the eye, we often consider them “shifty” and question the veracity of their responses. In Hmong culture, it is considered extremely rude to look someone in the eye. To do so would be to challenge their authority and deny them the respect they deserve. This again is a statement of how much respect is an issue in the Hmong culture. This is not unlike many Asian cultures, such as Japanese. Respect for the other person is the critical facet of the relationship (Respondent 2). While Americans consider respect to be looking the other person in the eye, Hmong consider respect to be the opposite. This is definitely a cultural barrier, which Americans should understand and honor.
Finally, it is important to clearly state and reinforce boundaries for Hmong people, as structure is important (Respondent 2). The mindset is often “if its not laid out precisely, it must not be very important” (Respondent 3). If, for instance, punctuality to a meeting is not emphasized, the Hmong will generally arrive between fifteen minutes and one hour after the announced meeting time. This could certainly impact travel or banking plans in a time-sensitive business deal. This then is one more aspect of the “speed” issue stated above. Again, Americans expect rushed meetings and punctuality whereas Hmong expect a relaxed atmosphere where – out of respect – it is assumed that the other party will eventually appear, so time is not a critical factor.
Additionally, when Americans ask multiple questions we generally expect to receive the answer to each question as it becomes available. As in many Asian cultures, especially the Japanese (Respondent 3), Hmong will not respond until all questions can be answered, unless they are specifically told otherwise. Therefore, this is one area Americans can receive information in a manner that they are used to, provided that one carefully lays out the structure ahead of time. Perhaps the best method of communication in this sense would be to either ask one question at a time, or to establish ahead of time that replies can be transmitted to any part of the request as the answers become available. Establishing these time and response boundaries would emphasize the requestor’s need to receive the response on a timely basis and would show the importance of the communications. Again, it would also show respect to the other party by stating the expectations up front rather than “assuming”.
Hmong will generally be slower to make decisions than Americans as well. This is because the Hmong value consensus, like many Asian groups. The process of Hmong decision-making requires consultation along up to seven levels. The first level is, of course, the personal level; the decision must be appropriate for the individual. The next level is the immediate family level; if a decision is not beneficial to the immediate family then it cannot be done. This is probably the most important decision-making level as the Hmong value their family reputations very highly. Acceptance of one Hmong by other Hmong is often determined solely on family reputation; a bad family reputation denotes a lack of personal credibility. The third and fourth levels are the extended family and sub-clan levels. The decision maker must consider how his decision will affect these groups. Next, the decision maker must consider the welfare of their entire clan as well as their in-laws. The seventh and final level to be considered is the Hmong community as a whole (Saykao). The importance of considering all these factors in making a decision results in a significantly slower decision-making process for the Hmong. Americans should keep this in mind when working with Hmong, one must allow time for a response to be determined.
Clan and family structure will also affect business communication. In addition to the tradition of greeting the eldest man first, one should ignore any women present until given direct permission to speak to them. “Hmong culture has primarily been patriarchal, with men holding positions of formal power within families and clans in their homeland of Laos, as refugees in Thailand, and as immigrants and new citizens in local communities” (McCall). Hmong society is very male-oriented:
“From childhood to old age, Hmong men assume many superior roles, and are perceived by family and society to be the breadwinners, protectors, leaders, and pillars of the family. In addition to being perceived as important and intelligent, male children receive special attention, love, care, training in hunting and leadership, and are viewed as the eventual pillars of the family” (Yang).
In addition, “women had to
obey their menfolk in every aspect of life” (Chan). Women are also almost entirely excluded from Hmong traditional
practices, such as life-cycle rituals.
The most “gender-neutral” traditional Hmong profession is
spiritual-healing; some women have entered the workforce today as traditional
Hmong healers. Despite the growing number of Hmong women in the workplace
(McCall), respect for women in business is not nearly as important in the Hmong
culture as in the American culture. In
point of fact, many American businesses would find it advantageous to appoint a
male representative in their dealings with Hmong, as he will be more highly
respected than a female representative.
However, in a family business this situation is slightly different.
The same etiquette applies; however, one should understand that wives play an important role in making financial and household decisions. “In Hmong society, the male appears to be the dominant figure – at least in most public gatherings, but this does not automatically mean that the husband is the leader of the house. In many cases, the wife may be the leader” (Saykao). With the situation of the Hmong living in refugee camps in recent years, often Hmong women have been able to find work to support their family (in textiles or as household help) when the men could not. This has led to a slight modification of traditional roles that has continued even among the Hmong who have moved to First World countries. Although men appear to maintain all control, the women actually have quite a bit of say in how the money is spent. Thus, one needs to be respectful to the women, so as to gain the wife’s respect, while still conducting business with the man (Respondent 2).
Some areas of Hmong culture remain the exclusive province of men. Prime among these are religious matters. The religious leader of the clan is always male. He is responsible for all spiritual matters, as well as matters such as selecting dates for important occasions and when to travel. He is also sometimes the war leader (Saykao). These matters (discussed further below) can have a large effect on business. When encountering these matters in the course of business, it is very important to appoint a male representative to the Hmong.
Next, one must consider a more specific area of cultural etiquette: business etiquette. This is the cultural etiquette that is directly related to business practices. This will be most important for the American businessperson in their dealings with Hmong in business setting.
The American businessperson would be most likely to encounter Hmong in the following industries: by far the most common industries for Hmong are agriculture and animal husbandry (Lee, Opium). The Hmong have for thousands of years been dependent on subsistence agriculture, and agriculture continues to be their primary business focus. In Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam nearly all Hmong farm or herd; and some, but certainly not all, are forced to depend on opium farming for survival. Some few Hmong men have stepped into the political arena in Asia to lobby for the Hmong, but it is rare for individual Hmong in Asia to put themselves forward this way. Another fairly common profession for Hmong men, especially those who emphasize maintaining clan traditions, is to become a clan healer using traditional practices. In Thailand, especially near the refugee camps, some women have entered the workforce as household labor (maids, childcare, etc.) or helped to support their families by selling the unique “storycloths” that showcase Hmong history (Hmong Experience). In the western world, the majority of Hmong continue to work in agriculture, either on local clan-owned farms, or as day laborers. In recent years, women have begun to venture into the service industries such as housecleaning, sewing, childcare, and social services. Family businesses are also becoming increasingly common, mostly in the agricultural arena. There is also a small, but growing, population of Hmong scholars and professionals, including lawyers, engineers, dentists, doctors, academics, etc. Beyond knowledge of specific industries, one needs to understand how Hmong culture in general will affect any business contact.
The Hmong culture is very high context; face-to-face meetings and verbal communication are much more important to Hmong than to Americans (Respondent 2). This is directly related to the importance Hmong place on building a relationship before conducting business. Written correspondence does not build a relationship between two people nearly as well as personal interaction. For this reason, Hmong will prefer face-to-face meetings, or possibly video conferences, over telephone, e-mail, and mail. Hmong will also prefer telephone conversations to e-mail and mail (Respondent 2). This is largely because traditional Hmong culture was oral (McCall). “Hmong have passed on knowledge orally for at least 4000 years” (Vang). Until American and French missionaries visited Laos in the 1950’s, there was no written Hmong language. The missionaries “used the Romanized popular alphabet system to record Hmong” (McCall) for the first time in 1952. As the Hmong have only been able to record their language for the last 50 years, they place a much higher importance on what is said than what is written. In the Hmong culture, verbal contracts, with at least two witnesses, have more authority than written contracts (Respondent 2). This is the exact opposite of American business tradition and law. Therefore, in order to effectively conduct business with the Hmong, Americans will have to be wary what they agree to verbally because the Hmong will consider this to be a binding contract. Conversely, Americans will have to get their contracts both in written form (for legal purposes) and verbal form, with witnesses, in order to insure compliance.
Like many Asian cultures, “Hmong want to be ‘like all the others.’ Conformity is the goal, rather than individualism” (Vang). In meetings it’s important to not single out any individual Hmong, except in the initial greeting to the eldest male. Instead, one should address their questions to the group in general. Whoever is knowledgeable in the appropriate area will either answer, or wait for the Hmong in charge to defer to them. Hmong also “value impulse control and thinking before acting” (Vang). In meetings and correspondence, Hmong will likely take longer than Americans to answer questions. Americans will need to be patient and understand that the Hmong are only being sure of their answer before responding.
One way to help understand Hmong business culture is through the use of an analytic technique developed by Dr. Hofstede (1984). Hofstede rated countries’ work cultures based on four key dimensions:
· Power Distance- “the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.”
· Uncertainty Avoidance- “the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain or ambiguous situations.”
· Individualism- refers to the extent to which the emphasis is on the individual, as opposed to Collectivism where a culture emphasizes a “tight social framework in which people distinguish between in-groups and out-groups; they expect their in-group (relatives clan, organizations) to look after them, and in exchange for that owe absolute loyalty to it.”
· Masculinity- “the extent to which the dominant values in society are assertiveness, money, and material things, not caring for others, quality of life and people.”
Hofstede did not do an analysis for the Hmong culture because his analyses were done on a country-by-country basis, and the Hmong cannot claim any country as their own. At this time, there appear to be no other Hofstede analyses done for the Hmong culture. The general analysis that follows is based on my own understanding of Hmong culture through my research and interviews. The scores I use are based on a 1 to 100 scale, one-hundred being high, that approximates the scale used by Hofstede.[4]
1. Power Distance- 55 - As described previously, Hmong society is very hierarchical. Hmong accept that power is not distributed evenly, and even show great respect for those who hold power, without looking down on the average person who does not. This attitude is comparable to the Japanese attitude; Hofstede rated Japan at 54. Therefore, I must rate the Hmong similarly.
2. Uncertainty Avoidance- 59 – The Hmong I have encountered have been fairly accepting of uncertain situations. The research that I have read supports this characterization of the Hmong. They have had a “que sera sera” sort of attitude, which I believe has been influenced by two major factors. First, Hmong religious belief puts great faith in both protective and malicious spirits; Hmong accept that the spirits affect all parts of their daily life, so changes are simply accepted as the will of the spirits. Second, the Hmong have been at odds with their neighbors throughout history, and, somewhat like the gypsies of Eastern Europe, the majority of Hmong have been refugees or just simply forced to move continuously for the last 200 years. Therefore, change and uncertainty are not unusual for the Hmong people. This acceptance of change in the Hmong culture is significantly greater than in other Asian cultures, resulting in a lower uncertainty avoidance score than other Asian groups, such as Japan (92), South Korea (85), and Taiwan (69). As close neighbors (and often residents) of Thailand, the Hmong are close to the Thai (64) in their level of uncertainty avoidance, but still slightly less avoidant, due to their history and culture as stated above.
3. Individualism vs. Collectivism – 12 – I have rated the Hmong highly on the collectivistic side of the scale (low individualism) because of the importance of the clan in everyday life. The word and will of one’s clan is accepted over anything else and clan affiliations can assure one assistance, help, and friendliness anywhere, even if the parties have never met before (Saykao). The Hmong are, if anything, even more collectivistic than the average Asian culture: Japan – 46, Hong Kong – 25, Singapore – 20, Thailand – 20, South Korea – 18, Taiwan – 17,
4. Masculinity- 43 - as supported by the professions frequented by the Hmong (primarily service and people oriented, and often low-income) and the importance of one’s clan in Hmong society; the Hmong society definitely embraces the feminine characteristics, especially that of caring for others. This is very similar to most Asian cultures, prompting a similar Masculinity score. Hong Kong –57, Singapore – 48, Taiwan – 45, South Korea – 39, and Thailand – 34.
A final area that will affect Hmong-American business relationships is religion. As a people, most Americans seek to separate business and religion. As Americans, primarily of one of the major western religions, we have certain holidays, such as Easter, Hanukkah, and Christmas, when we do not work. With few exceptions, Americans avoid allowing their religions to affect business. Hmong are very different in this concept. For most Hmong, their religion affects all parts of their daily life, including business. Like Americans, there are holidays, such Hmong New Year, when they do not work (Respondent 2). However, Hmong-American similarities, with regards to religion and business, end here. Although some Hmong have converted to Catholic, Baptist, Church of Christ, and Presbyterian faiths, most maintain their traditional religion (Hmongnet).
Overall, the Hmong people are very spiritual – to the point that people of other cultural backgrounds often see them as “superstitious.” Traditional Hmong religion involves a belief in “ancestor worship and spirit rituals” (Cultural); spirits, both good and bad, are believed to be present in all parts of Hmong daily life. Many Hmong rituals “require chickens, pigs, and cows to be butchered, so that the animals' blood can be used as a sacrifice… some of the ceremonies involve chanting and playing loud and, to American ears, strange music” (Chan). Hmong religion is very animist; many Hmong even believe that they have the ability to transform into tigers after death (Lee, M). Hmong will always consider the spirits before embarking on any business venture, out of respect for their ancestors who “guide the business” or the individual (Respondent 1).
Probably one of the most important religion-business
overlaps occurs with regards to travel.
When traveling, if the day of travel is not “right,” the Hmong person
will choose not to travel because they do not expect that the business venture
will be successful (Respondent 3). For
instance, if the Hmong businessperson is supposed to travel to Toronto on the
26th of March, they will consider whether it is an auspicious
day. If it is not, the Hmong will
probably refuse to fly that day, because they feel that traveling would serve
no purpose, as the business venture would fail. They may choose to reschedule the meeting, or they may refuse to
do any business whatsoever. Because of
this aspect of travel, Americans would be wise not to require Hmong to travel
on a particular day, but instead to leave the particular date of travel open
for the Hmong business partner to decide.
Another area that can affect business is the traditional Hmong healing ceremonies. When Americans get sick, we often try to maintain business contact, via telephone, e-mail, etc, in all but the most severe of situations. The same is not true of Hmong. When Hmong become ill they may use a traditional healing ceremony. This “soul-calling” ceremony or “ua neeb” seeks to heal the ill person by “reinstating their wandering soul” (Cultural). When this occurs, the person or people involved must remain in their home for one week without coming out, or they believe they will not be healed (Respondent 2). No matter how important a business situation may be, they will not “betray the spirits” by conducting business.
A final area, in which religion can affect business, is in regards to particular products or services. Various cultural beliefs can affect specific businesses. For instance, a service that seeks to educate parents about prenatal care will have difficulties due to the Hmong religious beliefs. In particular, Hmong believe that one may not speak directly of the unborn child because that would invite the evil spirits to enter the child (Respondent 1). In this instance, one would have to speak about the health of the mother, even though they are concerned with the baby, with the understanding that the mother-to-be will respond with comments on her own health which, in fact, describe the child’s.
In writing this paper, an entire cultural population
has been generalized. The assertions in
this paper apply to most traditional Hmong.
However, there are always exceptions to the rule. Three key exceptions may affect business
relations with the Hmong. First, there
is a small but growing population of non-traditional Hmong scholars and
professionals, including lawyers,
engineers, dentists, etc. This
group includes professionals such as Dr. Gary Yia Lee, Dr. Thaopaou Bliatout, Dr. Touxa Lyfoung, Dr. Yang
Dao, Lo Fong, Thao Phia Saykao, Vang Yee, and others (Saykao). Professionals represent a new breed of
leaders in Hmong society. Their
expertise is highly valued in the community; a dentist, for example, may be
given full authority on determining a plan of care for another clan member,
even if the patient lives hundreds of miles away or has never met the Hmong
dentist (Saykao). These professionals
are much more likely to have adapted to their local societies and may be used
as intermediaries between the Hmong doing business and their (American)
counterparts.
Some
of the younger generations have adapted very well to western society; for them
the traditional cultural practices do not have the same importance as for the
rest of Hmong society (Hein). These are
generally the generations that have grown up in western society (i.e. America)
and have grown up with the values of these societies. For instance, traditional Hmong society emphasizes the importance
of building relationships before one can really ‘get down to business.’ These younger generations may not value
long-term relationships as much simply because they have grown up in a society
where speed and quick business is the norm.
Finally,
the role of women is beginning to change, especially among the Hmong living in
western society. As these Hmong begin
to adopt western values, the belief in the authority of males begins to erode. Hmong find that women are just as accepted
in the workforce as men, and so begin to accept the increased power of women in
the community.
These are just three of the changes beginning to take place in Hmong society as its members continue to adapt to their changing circumstances. For now, it is wisest to respect Hmong culture and try to adapt to it. However, one can expect to see a growing Hmong presence in the emerging Global Economy as the Hmong continue to adapt to non-Hmong society.
The Hmong have a strong cultural identity with many traditions and practices that they continue to observe despite being spread around the world without any country to call their own. Many cultural and linguistic barriers are apparent between Americans and Hmong. These barriers will significantly affect the manner in which these two cultures do business with each other. Americans will particularly have to adapt to the slower pace of business in the Hmong tradition and the emphasis on hierarchy and male-dominance. However, there are also a number of similarities between these two cultural groups. The most important of these similarities are respect for one another and a strong work ethic. Although the American and Hmong perceptions of respect differ, both cultures feel the need for mutual respect in order to conduct business. Both cultures also emphasize the importance of a ‘job well-done’.
These cultural constraints exist not only for Hmong
in the U.S., but also for Hmong around the world. In writing this paper I have generalized an entire culture; one
needs to understand that there will always be exceptions, especially as the
‘international business culture’ continues to eliminate cultural
boundaries. Younger Hmong generations
are adapting to American culture and style of business, but, for now,
traditional Hmong cultural customs need to be respected. With patience, cultural training, and
understanding, Americans and Hmong should not have much difficulty in
effectively conducting business with one another.
Ua tas lawm.
·
Respondent 1: Female, Caucasian, Executive Director (Social Services Agency)
– independent and objective perspective of Hmong from American point of
view.
o
Particular information on benefits and challenges of
having Hmong employees.
·
Respondent 2: Female, Hmong, Family Support
Worker (Social Services Agency) - provided the perspective of the average
Hmong woman (in the US).
o
General information on Hmong society. Detailed Information on Hmong hierarchy,
greetings, etiquette, respect, and women’s roles.
·
Respondent 3: Male, Hmong, Agriculture -
provided the perspective of the average Hmong man (in the US).
o
Very difficult to secure agreement for interview. Information on hierarchy, role of men in
maintaining cultural traditions.
·
Respondent 4:
Female, Thai, Program Supervisor (Social Services Agency) –
American-Thai perspective of Hmong.
Thai traditionally have not gotten along with the Hmong.
o
Information on greeting Hmong and establishing a
relationship as a non-Hmong party.
Information about languages and importance of speaking the appropriate
dialects.
·
Respondent 5:
Female, Hmong, Agriculture – provided the perspective of the
average Hmong woman. Recent immigrant
from Thailand.
o
General information on Hmong society in Thailand,
particularly on state of refugee camps and Laotian repatriation practices.
·
Respondent 6: Female, Hmong, Family Support
Worker (Social Services Agency) - provided the perspective of the average
Hmong woman (in the US).
o
General information on Hmong society and information on
religious practices in particular.
I encountered several challenges in conducting the
interviews. First, the closest
substantial Hmong population willing allow interviews was located several hours
away from me. Knowing the Hmong
preference for personal contact, I drove to the area repeatedly for interviews,
but had to resort to telephone interviews in several cases. Second, I had difficulty securing interviews
with a substantial population, which is why only six interviews were conducted. I believe there are two main reasons for
this: first, language impediments. The
main challenge was in penetrating the close clan structure of the Hmong. Most people did not want to set themselves
apart from the group by agreeing to interviews. Three of the interviewees only agreed to interviews after being
approached by a member of their clan on my behalf. The other three interviewees only agreed to interviews because I
have worked with them in the past and had already established a relationship
with them. I especially had difficulty
securing interviews with men. The one
male respondent agreed to the interview only at his wife’s insistence. I am unsure why men where less willing to
speak with me; I can only speculate that it may have to do with my gender or
that I am not Hmong.
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<http://www.hmongnet.org/hmong-au/refugee.htm>
---.“The Relationship of the Hmong.” 12 Nov. 2001, 22 Mar. 2003.
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Respondent 2. Telephone Interview. 8 Oct. 2001.
Respondent 3. Telephone Interview. 9 Oct. 2001.
Respondent 4. Telephone Interview. 28 Mar. 2003.
Respondent 5. Telephone Interview. 6 Apr. 2003.
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[1] This paper is written entirely from an American perspective and focuses on information that Americans will need to know in working with the Hmong.
[2] For more information on the interviews, refer to Appendix A: Interviews.
[3] Reflecting general scholarly practice, this paper refers to all non-Chinese Hmong as ‘Hmong’ and all Chinese Hmong as ‘Miao’.
[4] All non-Hmong ratings are Hoftstede’s scores.